Three to four paragraphs Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Three to four paragraphs - Assignment Example rth America was in Roanoke Island, the English later set up colonies in some parts of North America and the Caribbean in the early seventeenth century. The first English colony to be taken by force was the Spanish colony of Jamaica after the English colonists seized it from Spain in 1655 (Cook). The Spanish pattern of Colonization was based on religious conversion and the control of the military forces of their colonies. The French pattern of colonization was based on the stimulation of the church, state, and the control of the military forces. The French settlements depended on the trading of fur rather than by agriculture, while the primary purpose of settlement of the English and Spanish colonists were based on agriculture. The Spanish pattern of colonization was based on the principle of mercantilism, which meant that the colonies supplied market and materials and ease the home nations on reliance on other countries. This meant that, the Spanish colonization impeded trade amongst the locals and imposed high taxes upon the locals. The French pattern of colonization was based on imperialism as they dominated the political, military and the economic spheres of their colonies. The English colonization was also imperialistic in nature. Unlike the French colonists, the Englis h colonists were more prepared to grant independence to their colonies. The Spanish colonists also did not grant independence to their colonies until the colonies fought for their independence, especially the Spanish colonies in South America. The English colonists settled in the eastern seaboard of North America and they were faced with stiff competition from the French colonists, which colonized most parts of Canada. The French colonists settled in Quebec, Canada in 1608 and they claimed Louisiana for themselves in 1682. The French and Spanish settlers were largely Roman Catholics and they tried to convert their colonies to Roman Catholic, while the English settlers were purely Protestants,

Discuss the representation of the supernatural in Frankenstein and Essay

Discuss the representation of the supernatural in Frankenstein and Lyrical Ballads and related writings - Essay Example These representations are probably the secret ingredients of writers to their works that usually hold their readers’ attention, and getting their praises in the end. As for Wordsworth and Coleridge, they were initially stoned with many negative comments from reviewers like Francis Jeffrey which resulted to readers refraining from embracing their works (enotes.com). However, with the rise of other reviewers who appreciated the simplicity of the two Romantics’ works, the dice was rolled for the authors’ favors and marked their names in history, where even today, the representations of their works are rediscovered time and again. Mary Shelly’s Frankenstein (Literature.org) is a lyrical ballad with representations of the unseen world and nature, of gods and humans. During the times of early discoveries of what we enjoy now like electricity, unseen powers greatly influenced the imaginations of men that this theme is scattered in many of their literary works. Fr ankenstein’s creation of a monster resulted from the understanding of the works of the gods who keep the equilibrium of the universe and things in it. The creator intended to make a man like himself through his study of Chemistry, one that he would be proud of, intended for the good of mankind. To his disappointment, he made alive a creature he eventually feared and despised; a demonstration of what the supreme can do to frustrate the illusions of man for fame, glory and power. Frankenstein, destroying his she monster before even taking the breath of life brings to him a realization that he can not play god again. He may have been able to create a man, but it was to his misfortune and not according to what he expected things to be. This realization may have not been explicitly mentioned but the representation rings through the story where Frankenstein’s fears for what the monster could do, with a helper who could be able to reproduce their kinds amongst humankind. It c ould also have been to Frankenstein, a submission and acceptance that he is not at all powerful as the gods who are able to look after their creations and limit their fantasies as they did to him and his creation, a monster instead of an adorable man. Looking at the story more closely and its implications to the modern world, Frankenstein obviously would represent men or scientists in particular and the monster are the bad effects of their discoveries and creations. For instance, men created bombs, missiles and guns. Like the monster of Frankenstein, these creations take millions of lives around the world not only the bad guys but more often than not, the innocent become the victims. The creators of which are not spared from the pain of such a great misery as seen in the life of Frankenstein whose loved ones were not spared, making him suffer all the more, blaming himself for such a misfortune. Men can not undo what they have done, they can not bring the time of ignorance about such destructive creations as Frankenstein was not able to destroy his monster. However, it could be implied in the story that such insanity can either be reinforced or put to a stop. Frankenstein, creating a she monster would strengthen the male counter part and eventually take more lives than he is able to do alone, likewise, scientists creating more and stronger kinds of bombs will physically do the same.

Contribution for Canadian Identity Essay Example for Free

Contribution for Canadian Identity Essay Throughout history, Canadian aboriginals have not been recognized for their contribution, sacrifices, and involvement in Canadian war efforts. During the First and Second World Wars, many aboriginals enlisted themselves in the services for the Canadian Armed Forces. In World War I, aboriginal soldiers like Corporal (Cpl). Francis Pegahmagabow and Henry Norwest helped advance the Canadian identity with their skills and bravery in Canadian fought battles. Tommy Prince in World War II worked hard to further maintain the Canadian identity. Aboriginal soldiers courage, sacrifices, and accomplishments further developed Canadian identity in World War I and World War II. Aboriginal, Corporal (Cpl) Francis Pegahmagabow contributed his brave actions for the development of the Canadian identity. It was during his first year on the Western Front that Pegahmagabow became one of the first Canadians to be awarded the Military Medal (MM). He received his MM for his service as a messenger in battles such the Battle of Ypres. Pegahmagabow was a messenger from February 1915 to February 1916; he â€Å"carried messages with great bravery and success during the whole of the actions at Ypres, Festubert and Givenchy.† [1] The bravery of Pegahmagabow resulted in the halt of the German advance. The defeat of the Germans was important in Canadian history because, the world now saw Canada as an independent nation that could unite as one to fight for their rights and freedom. Pegahmagabow was important because his job of delivering messages allowed access to information about the German advance which in turn resulted in a Canadian victory. This victory gave the Ca nadians an independent identity. At the Battle of Passchendaele, Pegahmagabow added the first bar to his MM for his work of running across the land through the tough war conditions to bring back valuable information for his unit. The information Pegahmagabow provided resulted in â€Å"the success of the attack and saving valuable time in consolidating.† [2] The courage of the aboriginal soldier Cpl. Pegahmagabow and his excellent work contributed to the success of the Canadians capturing the Passchendaele Ridge. The victory of the battle of Passchendaele was vital in the development of the Canadian identity because the British Army had previously tried to capture the Passchendaele Ridge for three months but had not succeeded. The Canadians captured the ridge mainly because of the support and the contribution of such soldiers like Pegahmagabow, and therefore Canadians accomplished goals that other countries had failed to do. During Pegahmagabow’s service in the Canadian Armed Forces Cpl. Pegahmagabow â€Å"captured 300 soldiers and shot 378.† [3] As a result of his achievements, Pegahmagabow served as a catalyst for Canada to be able to have a presence on a global scale. Cpl. Pegahmagabow was also a skilled marksmanship, which allowed him to succeed at the battlefront. Applying these skills resulted in a high number of casualties on the German side which, identified him as a valuable soldier. This was a great advantage for the Canadian side as the strength of the enemy forces was weakened, therefore Canadians were a step closer to wining the war. This achievement by an aboriginal soldier further contributed to the Canadian identity. Henry Norwest, another aboriginal, contributed to the development of the Canadian identity by utilizing his fine skills in sniping. Norwest was given his first MM after the capture of the Pimple peak on Vimy Ridge because, Norwest showed â€Å"great bravery, skill and initiative in sniping the enemy after the capture of the Pimple.† [4] The sniping skills Norwest possessed led to the Canadians capturing the peak on Vimy Ridge. Killing the enemy after the capture of the Pimple peak was important because, the skillful aboriginal saved a great number of Canadian soldiers. This battle was also of great significance in Canadian history, as Canadians, once again proved to the world that they are a capable, strong nation that that can overcome obstacles regardless of the circumstances or previous failed attempts. On the other hand, with the skills of aboriginal soldiers like Norwest, the Canadians were able to conquer the Pimple. Norwest had all the essential skills a sniper needed to be successful. Norwest had â€Å"excellent marksmanship, an ability to keep perfectly still for very long periods and superb camouflage techniques.†[5] These skills made Norwest a lethal Canadian aboriginal sniper. Being a lethal sniper, Norwest was crucial for the development in the Canadian identity. By camouflaging, Norwest deceived the enemy and hence sniped them. The contribution of this aboriginal soldier gave Canadians the identity as strategic planners. Norwest was a skilled and fatal sniper because he â€Å"achieved a sniping record of 115 fatal shots.† [6] Norwest shot down many enemy soldiers and as a result, this reduced the number of enemies to fight. By reducing the number of enemies, Norwest also enabled the Canadians to be another step closer to winning the war. Canadians proved that they are a mighty, powerful and strong army because of Canadian aboriginal soldiers such as Norwest, who shot down many enemy soldiers efficiently. In the Second world war, aboriginal soldier Tommy Prince’s brave actions and unique ability, led to the further enhancement of the Canadian identity. In 1944 in Italy, Tommy Prince showed his bravery while spying on a German camp. While he was reporting the German activity, his communication line was damaged but, â€Å"[b]y pretending to tie his shoes, he successfully repaired the break in full view of the German soldiers.†[7] Prince’s utmost bravery led to the destruction of four German tanks, which were shooting at the Allied forces. Prince risked his life to fulfill his duty as a spy. This act of the aboriginal soldiers bravery was pivotal for the development of the Canadian identity. Canadians proved that they are risk takers and are capable of fulfilling their duty with bravery. King George VI decorated Tommy Prince with the Silver Star and ribbon, an American honour because Prince â€Å"occupied new heights and successfully wiped out the enemy encampment area† [8] in the summer of 1944 for going behind enemy lines and locating a German camp. Tommy Prince located the camp and then with his brigade, captured more than 1000 German soldiers. This technique of locating the German camp led to the reduction in the number of German soldiers. This commendable mission carried out by aboriginal soldier, Prince, was essential for the development for the Canadian identity. This mission was significant because the world saw Canadians as a strong nation that has a strong military capable of destruction of the enemies. Tommy Prince had skills which allowed him to be a part of the special airborne force with â€Å"1600 of the toughest men to be found in Canada and the United States.† [9] Tommy Prince possessed essential paratrooper skills. He possessed the skills of landing and crawling on his belly, with the swiftness of a snake. These skills made Prince a successful paratrooper. The aboriginal soldier applied his exemplary skills at the battle front to further enrich the Canadian identity. Soldiers such as Prince were symbols to represent the Canadians as tactful and skillful warriors. During the First and the Second World Wars, many aboriginal Canadians volunteered for the Canadian Armed Forces and contributed in the development of the Canadian identity. With the unique and effective skills of Francis Pegahmagabow and Henry Norwest the Canadian identity was enhanced. Tommy Prince’s courage and dedication for his nation helped Canada gain a military reputation throughout the world. The contribution, sacrifices, and involvement of aboriginals should not be forgotten because aboriginal soldiers were important for the enrichment of the Canadian identity. Works Cited â€Å"Prince of the Brigade,† Canadian Government Site. Web. 28 April 2011 â€Å"Sharpshooter: Henry Louis Norwest,† Canadian Government Site. Web. 3 May 2011 â€Å"Treasures Gallery Francis Pegahmagabow’s Medals†, Canadian Museum of Civilization. Web.2 May 2011 Gaffen, Fred. Forgotten Soldiers, 1985 Penticton, B.C.: Theytus Books. Print Livesey, Robert, and A. G. Smith. The Great War. 2006 Markham, Ont.: Fitzhenry Whiteside. Print Lloyd, Dohla. â€Å"Thomas Prince: Canadas Forgotten Aboriginal War Hero.† First Nations Drum Canada’s National Native Newspaper, September 2002. Article. â€Å"Henry Norwest,† University of Calgary. Web. 29 April 2011 A Peaceful Man Veterans Affairs Canada. Veterans Affairs Canada. Web. 27 April 2011 Wheeler, Victor W. The 50th Battalion in No Mans Land, 2000, Ottawa, Ont.: CEF Books. Print [1] Veterans Affairs Canada, A Peaceful Man Veterans Affairs Canada., last modified 2011-02-23, http:/www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/sub.cfm?source=history/other/native/peaceful [2] Canadian Museum of Civilization, â€Å"Treasures Gallery Francis Pegahmagabow’s Medals†, last modified 2010-05-27, http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/treasure/280eng.shtml [3] Livesey, Robert, and A. G. Smith. The Great War . Markham, Ont.: Fitzhenry Whiteside, 2006, 84 [4] University of Calgary â€Å"Henry Norwest,† last modified 2010, http://library.ucalgary.ca/node/599 [5] Canadian Government Site. â€Å"Sharpshooter: Henry Louis Norwest,† Date Created: 1996-12-22, Date Modified: 2006-12-15, http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/sub.cfm?source=history/other/native/norwest [6] Wheeler, Victor W. The 50th Battalion in No Mans Land, Ottawa, Ont.: CEF Books, 2000, 283 [7] Gaffen, Fred. Forgotten Soldiers, Penticton, B.C.: Theytus Books, 1985, 56 [8] Canadian Government Site. â€Å"Prince of the Brigade,† Date Created: 1996-12-22, Date Modified: 2006-12-15, http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/sub.cfm?source=history/other/native/prince [9] Lloyd, Dohla. â€Å"Thomas Prince: Canadas Forgotten Aboriginal War Hero.† First Nations Drum Canada’s National Native Newspaper, September 2002.

Essay on the Double Meanings of The Odyssey -- Homer, Odyssey Essays

The Double Meanings of The Odyssey      Ã‚     Throughout Homer's The Odyssey, there are a number of tangible symbols that are used to represent abstract ideas. I would like to suggest that each symbol that Homer uses within The Odyssey has two clear meanings. The double meanings of these symbols are used to represent Odysseus and Telemachus as they strive to meet each other. While each symbol has a meaning that represents the growth of Telemachus, each one also represents, by another meaning, the growth and development of Odysseus. When they meet for the first time, the symbols, and the character traits that they represent confluence, and the resemblance between Odysseus and Telemachus becomes complete. One of the main ideas running throughout the Odyssey is the importance of water. It has the power of giving life and quick, safe travel, but it also has the potential to drown you through the itself. While it is often perceived as being good and usually life giving, it also demonstrates how too much of a good thing can bring harm. It brings much harm to Odysseus as he is traveling to Phaeacia, "At Zeus' command the whole sky is heavy with clouds, the sea is seething, squalls from every corner hurtle together. There is nothing now for me but certain d... ..., et al. A commentary on Homer's Odyssey. 3 Vols. Oxford PA4167 .H4813 1988 Jones, Peter V. Homer's Odyssey : a companion to the translation   of Richmond Lattimore.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Carbondale, IL : Southern Illinois University Press, c1988. PA4167 .J66 1988 Peradotto, John , Man in the Middle Voice: Name and Narration in the Odyssey, Princeton UP 1990 Stanford, William Bedell. Homer's Odyssey. 2 Vols. Macmillan   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thalmann, William G., The Odyssey : an epic of return. New York : Twayne Publishers. PA4167 .T45 1992 Tracy, Stephen V., The story of the Odyssey. Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, c1990.   PA4167 .T7 1990   

Foundations of Group Behavior Essay

Groups can be as small as two people or as big as the number may reach even in hundreds of thousands. They are formed for different reasons and serve different benefits to their members and also to their organizations. However, there may be some drawbacks too as it will be seen in this paper. Formal and Informal Groups Groups can be divided into two types: Formal groups and Informal groups. Formal groups are those groups which have been recognized and created by the organization. (Robbins 2004, p. 164) They have a longer lifespan and have a more formal structure. They also have specific jobs that are to be handled and the efforts of the group are directed in such a way that they will lead to the accomplishment of the organization’s objectives. (Robbins 2004, p. 164) These groups are formed after extensive planning regarding their volume and constitution of the group. Waiters in a restaurant can be thought of as a formal group. On the other hand, informal groups are groups that are not made formally by the organization and do not have a specific structure that is recognized by the organization. (Robbins 2004, p.164) These can be formed by social interaction between workers in an organization and can be diverse in their nature in any sense. For example, four employees who met in the canteen can develop a sort of relationship with each other although they may not be required to interact with each other to accomplish any organizational objectives. This group has formed without any formal structure that can be identified in the organizational structure and is an example of an informal group. Command, Task, Interest, and Friendship Groups Groups can also be categorized into command groups, task groups, interest groups, or friendship groups. (Robbins 2004, p. 164) Command groups are created formally and they are recognized in the organizational hierarchical structure. These groups comprise of members who are answerable to one manager. Although task groups are also made by the organization and interact to achieve organizational objectives, their members are not always answerable to their immediate managers. Workers who originally report to different managers can be combined by an organization to accomplish a certain task and during this task, these individual members can skip the original organizational hierarchy if required. For example, an organization can ask employees from the software development team to interact with members of the human resources team to decide about vacancies in the organization. Both command groups and task groups are types of formal groups as both of these groups are formed formally to achieve organizational objectives. On the other hand, an interest group is a type of an informal group that can be formed to achieve some particular goal that has a common interest for all of the group members. (Robbins 2004, p. 164) For example, a few workers can join hands to ask for a salary increase. Similarly, friendship groups can also be categorized as a type of informal groups as they are formed by members who share some common characteristics that led them to develop friendship with each other. (Robbins 2004, p. 164) Moreover, friendship groups can also interact outside the dimensions of the workplace. Both interest groups and friendship groups are types of informal groups as they are not made formally by the organization, are not recognized by the organizational structure, and do not necessarily meet to accomplish organizational objectives. The aim of informal groups is more inclined towards fulfilling social requirements of the individuals in the group. (Robbins 2004, p. 164) However, the relationship between members of informal groups has significant impacts on their work performance and their actions. A group in the past was usually associated with some social activity where a number of people from the society would join each other for a specific reason. These social alliances, widely known as informal groups, fulfill the social needs of the members. In interest groups, society members from different fields join each other for vested interests while friendship groups are characterized by the common characteristic(s) of the members. The member of these groups may meet in health clubs, cafe, and public parks and so on. Since these groups lack a formal structure and rules and guidelines, the chances of conflicts are high but once the members get along, the group may be able to fight for their interest even in the worst situations. External and Internal Factors affecting Groups When we hear the word group, we infer it to a collection of people in an organization that work together to achieve a desired specific goal. These are the groups in which the members are confined to work within the boundaries of organizationally set guidelines and rules to achieve a goal or number of goals. They may face the problems of time limitations, resource(s) restriction, or the group may not be empowered with authority to make decisions on its own, or the organizational culture may not be aligned to that of the group. Similarly, the organization’s selection and rewarding policies may affect the performance of the groups as groups are composed of personnel that are hired and rewarded by the organization. These limitations are not under the group’s control and can be called as the external factors affecting the group’s performance. Internal factors affecting the group’s performance may be those factors that form the structure of the group. The reason is that these factors affect the behavior of the members. Group leaders that serve as a mentor, facilitator, conflict manager, and so on may bring about the desired changes in the member’s behavior and thus may increase the group’s performance. Tuckman’s Five-Stage Model It was in 1965 that Bruce Tuckman revealed his four-stage model comprising of Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing. Afterwards, he added a fifth stage, Adjourning, too to his original four-stage model. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) (Clark 2005, n. p. ) Forming Forming is the first stage where individuals in a group get acquainted with each other. In the beginning, the group members are careful not to show any behavior that may be considered as unacceptable for a group behavior. For example, at this stage, a group member may refrain from pointing out mistakes of another member as he might be afraid that it can give rise to some conflict. During this stage, members interact with each other to exchange basic concepts and primary matters. It can be difficult to figure out all of the problems at this stage as individuals within the group can get distracted by the different situations in which they try to adjust themselves. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) Therefore, only minimal progress is attained as far as the accomplishment of organizational objectives is concerned, but this is normal at this stage. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) This phase ends when individuals within the group begin to perceive themselves as constituents of the team. (Robbins 2004, p. 165) Storming During the next stage, storming, group members gradually realize that they have achieved little so far. Each and every member has his own perceptions of how things should be done and a suitable knowledge sharing environment is not formed yet. This can be considered the most troublesome phase as members start to recognize that the jobs to be done are not as easy as they seemed previously. Interactions with other team members are often limited to arguments about what should the group do as a whole. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) Conflicts may arise as team members do not want to have their individual freedom limited. (Robbins 2004, p. 165) At this stage, members do not trust others and do what seems appropriate with respect to their own experience. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) A lot of energy is wasted in these issues and not much is attained during this stage. However, members start to develop a mutual understanding amongst themselves. This stage ends when an obvious and established hierarchy of command forms inside the team. (Robbins 2004, p. 165) Norming The next stage is Norming where the group begins to share information with each other. Good associations build up amongst employees and the team shows cohesiveness. (Robbins 2004, p. 165) Members resolve their conflicts and collaborate with each other. During this phase, members also start to criticize others in a productive way so that the criticism benefits instead of creating conflicts. For example, a senior member can explain the correct way of doing a job to his juniors while supporting arguments from researches published in peer-reviewed journals. At the same time, the senior member can brief the juniors about the consequences of doing things wrong and the benefits of doing things in the right way. Junior members are also more likely to listen as they start realizing the importance of achieving organizational objectives while working in groups. As conflicts are avoided and minimized, most of the energy and time is spent on accomplishing organizational objectives. This phase ends when team members develop an attitude that matches the members’ mutual perception of acceptable group behavior. Performing The fourth stage Performing begins with members having developed good relationships with each others. Now, team members can identify problems, solve them, and implements the alterations successfully. Finally, group members have learned about the strong points and weak points of their fellow members. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) The group begins to perform very well and is now a successful and cohesive group. This is the final phase for enduring work groups although temporary work groups have another phase. Adjourning The last stage, which is for temporary work groups like task groups, is known as Adjourning. (Clark 2005, n. p. ) The work is wrapped up in this final stage. Some team members are happy due to the accomplishment of the task. Others may be sad to leave their fellows with whom they had developed cordial relationships. Some relationships may even continue even though the team may be dissolved. Roles The roles that are played by team members also affects their behavior as different teams are formed for different reasons and thus demands different behaviors in different situations. Several characteristics may always be associated with a role and these make the role identity. Similarly one’s perception of how to behave in a certain situation and other’s expectations of a certain behavior in a situation may also mould one’s behavior. This phenomenon of Role Expectation is visible in the real life where employees and employers form expectations for each others. (Robbins 2004, p. 169) Failure of exposing an expected behavior by any party may cause damage by bringing about an undesired behavioral change that might not be acceptable by the other party. Managing divergent role expectations arising from different employees and employers can result in a role conflict where meeting the role expectations of one group member may hinder with meeting the role expectations of other members, and this situation results in frustration for the group members. (Robbins 2004, p. 169) Norms and Status The norms that a group possesses explain its members how to behave in a different situations and thus should be possessed by all the members to avoid conflicts. For example the performance norms tell members how to work, how much efforts to put, how to increase productivity and so on. The appearance norms include things like appropriate dress code whereas social arrangement norms fulfill the social needs within the work groups by creating social interaction among members. (Robbins 2004, p. 169) Then there are allocation of resources norms that demands members to avoid wastage of time and resources and tells about salary and job. Working in groups also comes with problems called deviant workplace behavior where other members disturb others by a number of ways like harassment, verbal abuse, spreading rumors, stealing their goods and so on. Such behaviors may even make a member not only to leave a group but to leave the job. We see many women who leave their jobs as their boss or colleagues sexually harass them. These behaviors are found to be prevailing in people that have been members of groups whose norms support such behavior. Managers should plan and work to avoid such behaviors so that group members do not have to leave their group/job or reduce their efforts. Status as it affects ones norms also affects ones behavior. But this deviation should not be so much that other group members feel that they are treated unequally as it may affect their productivity and thus may decline the group performance. This decline in productivity is not just because of member’s sense of equity but also depends on the cultures to which they belong which consequently affect how they value status. Size, Composition, and Cohesiveness As far as the size of the group is concerned, it may not be the right predictor of a group’s success or failure as difference in size depends on the goal to be achieved. While small groups are good for short time projects, bigger groups are required when diverse objectives are to be achieved. Moreover, the composition of groups affects their performance directly. Evidence shows that heterogeneous groups outperform homogeneous groups but in return they take more time as members need to adjust and understand each other. (Robbins 2004, p. 174) Same is the case with groups composed of diverse national or cultured members. But as the gap between members having common attribute(s) increases, the group productivity decreases. Cohesiveness is also an important feature of groups. It is the tendency to which members are attracted to each other and thus stimulated to work together. It affects the group performance and thus its productivity for the performance related norms are high, cohesive groups will perform highly. (Robbins 2004, p. 175) Cohesiveness can be increased by providing a broader span of time so that members spend more time; the size of the group should be reduced as smaller groups make interaction easy. Group Decision Making: Groupthink Irving (1972, 1982) came up with the revolutionizing concept of groupthink that is related with the group decision making strategies. (qtd. In Universiteit Twente 2004, n. p.) This theory proposes that a group may develop itself in such a way that preserving the integrity of the group may become important than accepting and implementing real facts and optimal solutions. This situation usually takes place when a team is extremely cohesive in its nature, and is led by an authoritative leader where criticism and conflicting opinions are not welcomed. (Universiteit Twente 2004, n. p. ) There are a few drawbacks of having this approach of group decision making. Firstly, the team will restrict itself to only a handful of alternatives. The solution that is proposed initially and is accepted by the majority is not subject to criticism and arguments that may identify some complicated problems. Moreover, opinions from professionals are not valued very much. Lastly, the team becomes so overconfident of its practices and opinions that contingency plans are not made. (Universiteit Twente 2004, n. p. ) Therefore, groupthink can hinder the overall performance of the team significantly. (Robbins 2004, p. 179) Group Decision-making Techniques Brainstorming In brainstorming, the team leader may mention the problem in a clear-cut way to all members. Afterwards, each member comes up with his own ideas to solve the problem. It is essential during this stage that members do not criticize each other. All the solutions proposed by members are noted down so that they can be thoroughly discussed in future. (Robbins 2004, p. 181) One obvious advantage of this approach is that one opinion from a member gives rise to a number of opinions and members also come up with out-of-the-box ideas as criticism does not prevail. However, according to one research, members may still hold some ideas faring criticism from others although it is clearly mentioned and understood that no one will criticize. (Sample 1984, n. p. ) Nominal Group Technique In the Nominal Group Technique, employees join together as a team to solve the problem, but instead of sharing their opinions with each others, they just do brainstorming on an individual basis and note down their own ideas and solutions to the problem. Afterwards, members discuss their ideas one by one with others and each idea is discussed, clarified, and assessed. Then, on an individual basis again, members rank the ideas and solutions without consulting others. The solutions that are ranked higher by the majority are taken as the final group decision. (Robbins 2004, p. 181) One problem with this approach is opinions of members do not converge and the whole process may seem too mechanical. (Sample 1984, n. p. ) Conclusion When people work in groups, their analytical abilities enhances and they think of one thing in different aspects and since members in group are diverse, many new ways of doing a task can be sought. At the same time, those ways can be analyzed and assessed from different perspectives. Another reason for a group may be efficiency as a group can work faster. The chances of errors also reduce in groups as members look at minute details which might be ignored if the task was to be done by a single person. Time is another reason for working in groups. Time is saved when people work in groups. Also decision made by a group is usually better than that made by a single person as a group considers different aspects and follow the technique of brainstorming. Data gathering becomes easy in groups as diverse people collect the diverse data which makes the work easy. Groups are now vital to an organization’s success. They not only save time and other resources but also result in a better decision, but while forming a group, care should be taken as conflict may take place among member which eventually may decline the group performance and productivity and thus not only may waste money but also time and energy that might have been used effectively. Bibliography Clark, D. (2005, September 29) Matrix Teams [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed 15 Sep 2007] Janis, I. L. (1972) Victims of Groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Janis, I. L. (1982) Groupthink, 2nd Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Robbins, Stephen P. , (2004) Chapter Eight: Foundations of Group Behavior, Organizational Behavior, 11th Edition [Internet]. Prentice Hall. Available from: [Accessed 15 Sep 2007] Sample, J. A. (1984) Nominal Group Technique: An Alternative to Brainstorming. Journal of Extension, 22(2) [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed 15 Sep 2007] Universiteit Twente (09/06/2004) Groupthink [Internet]. Available from: [Accessed 15 Sep 2007]

Case Study: BPI vs. de Coster Essay

FACTS:On Dec. 29, 1921, Gabriela Andrea de Coster y Roxas and her husband acting as her agent, made to the BPI a certain promissory note for P292,000,payable one year after date, with interest of 9 per cent per annum and payable monthly. In order to secure the payment thereof, Jean M.Poizat and J. M. Poizat and Co. executed a chattel mortgage in favor of the plaintiff on the steamers Roger Poizat and Gabrielle Poizat including the machinery and materials belonging to the Poizat Vegetable Oil Mills. Gabriela Andreade Coster y Roxas and her husband acknowledged and delivered to the plaintiff a mortgage on certain real property lying and being situated in the City of Manila. The real property was subject to a prior mortgage in favor of La Orden de Dominicos or PP. Predicadores de la Provinciadel Santisimo Rosario, hence it is made a party defendant. The promissory is long past due which compel the plaintiff to file an action against the defendants. The lower court rendered judgment against the defendants GabrielaAndrea de Coster y Roxas, Jean M. Poizat and J. M. Poizat andCo. and made them liable,jointly and severally, for the payment of P292,000, with interest at the rate of 9 per cent per annum starting from the 31st of August, 1923. They are also order to pay P10,000 as attorney’s fees and P2,500 for the insurance upon the steamer Gabrielle Poizat , with interest on that amount starting from February 9, 1924, at the rate of 9 per cent per annum, and costs. Then the plaintiff files a petition to the court for a writ of execution. On May 3, 1924, the plaintiff files a motion to declare the defendants in default due to their failure to appear or answer. The court rendered decision in favor of the plaintiffs. On Aug. 26, 1924, Gabriela Andrea de Coster y Roxas, claimed that she had been residing in Paris, France from 1908 until April 30, 1924 and that she only found out about the case from the newspapers. She further claims that she was never given any summons by the sheriff and that her husband exceeded his authority as her agent. She prayed that the judgment to be annulled and set aside. She also prayed that the case be reopened and she be permitted to file an answer so that the case can be tried according to its merits. ISSUES: †¢ Whether or not proper summons were served. †¢ Whether or not Jean M. Poizat, husband of the defendant exceeded his authority as an agent of his wife. †¢ Whether or not the case should be remanded to the lower court. HELD:With regards to the first issue, the Court held that the summons has not been properly served. In the ordinary course of things when the wife is absent from the residence of husband by reason of pleasure or business, the residence of the wife would continue and remain to be that of the husband. In the instant case, the circumstances warrant otherwise. For fifteen years the residence of the husband was in the City of Manila, and the residence of the wife was in the City of Paris prior to the filing of the complaint and issuance of summons.. There have been no personal service of summon on the defendant as required by the Rules of Court because the publication requirement for serving of summons to persons made party to a case who are residing abroad has not been satisfied. With regards to the second issue, the Court held that Jean M. Poizat has exceeded his authority as the agent of his wife. It will be noted that there is no provision in power of attorney granted to the husband of the defendant which authorizes or empowers him to sign anything or to do anything which would make his wife liable as a surety for a pre-existing debt. It is fundamental rule of construction that in an instrument where powers and duties are specified and defined, all of such powers and duties are limited and confined to those expressly mentioned therein and all other powers and duties are excluded. It is very apparent from the face of the instrument that the purpose of the power of attorney was to empower and authorize the husband to look after and protect the interests of his wife. But nowhere does it provide or authorize him to make her liable as a surety for the payment of the pre-existing debt of a third person. Hence, it follows that the husband was not authorized or empowered to sign the note in question for and on behalf of his wife. Therefore, the note is void for want of power of the husband to execute it. The same thing is true as to the real mortgage to the bank.It was given to secure the note in question and was not given for any other purpose. The real property described in the mortgage was the property of the wife. The note being void as far the wife is concern, it follows that the real mortgage to the bank is also void for want of power to execute it. On the last issue, the Court held that the case should be remanded to the lower court to give the wife opportunity to file an answer to plaintiff’s cause of action so that the case can be tried according to its merits.

Silk Route as Commerce Network History Essay

Silk Route as Commerce Network History Essay Silk Route as Commerce Network History Essay Example Silk Route as Commerce Network History Essay Example Silk Route is a famous trade network, which united China and Mediterranean during various periods of time. The majority of historians come to a conclusion that this commerce network was established in 130 BC and existed to 15 century AD when the Ottoman Empire refused to make trades with the West and closed the route. The length of the network is approximately 4,000 miles and it linked China with Roman Empire (Li 34). The name of the trade path was received due to the silk, which was the most common product on the network. However, it was named as the Silk Road only in 1877 by German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen (Li 35). The route has bigger significance than a mere commerce meaning. Due to the commercial network, different countries that were united by it exchanged their cultures. During the antique era, among the major traders within the Silky Road, one could find China, Greece, Persia, Romania, India, Armenia, Bactria and Syria. In addition, there also was Sogdia, but only from the fifth to the eighth century. Besides, in the period of the age of Islam, Arab traders also joined the Silky Route activity and were extremely popular in the so-called market. The exchange between mentioned cultures was an important step for introducing the relations between different cultures at a new level. In fact, all these cultures have very little in common and they reflect opposite values and beliefs. Nevertheless, due to the economic advantages that each of them could give to others, they could find something that united them and it was profit. The history of the Silk Route is a good example of the way the cultures with different world views could work together to achieve the mutual goals. The well-being of the Silk Route much depended on the efforts of both civilizations. Due to the necessity to create the effective trade network, two struggling cultures could find a compromise. However, the developed commerce is not the only contribution of the network. The tide economic relations had the significant input in the shifts of the political, social and technological development. The exchange of experience and technologies was the integral part of the network. According to such fact, the Silk Route should be discussed from various perspectives, taking into consideration both economic and technological progress. The Routes of the Silk Road Obviously, the Silk Road had its particular routes of transmission of goods. They were the southern route, the northern route and the south-western route. The northern route took its place in Changan, which is today known as Xian. Changan was a capital of China in ancient times, which was lately moved east. Current route was found approximately in the first century BC, the time when the harassment conducted by nomadic tribes was ended by Han Wudi (Li 36). The route was long as it travelled northwest through the province of China of Gansu from the Province of Shaanxi. Besides, the route split into 3 other routes: two of the three sub-routes followed the mountain ranges up to the south and north of the Taklamakan Desert so that they rejoined at Kashgar. The third sub-route went north of the mountains Tian Shan through Talgar, Turpan and Almaty, which is today known as Kazakhstan. All three sub-routes split west of Kashgar. At the same time, a southern branch headed down the Alai Valley towards Uzbekistan, which was known as Termez in ancient times and Balkh, that is Afghanistan today. The other sub-routes traveled through eastern Uzbekistan (the Fergana Valley Kokand) and west across the Desert Karakum. Further, both routes joined the major southern route before they reached ancient Merv, which is now Turkmenistan (Li 36). Regarding the southern route, which was also known as the Karakoram route, one can state that it was primarily a single route that went from China through the Karakoram Mountains. In the Karakoram Mountains, the south route endures to present times as the international road that connects China and Pakistan as the Karakoram Highway. Further, the route goes to the west. However, it still spurred the southern era in order to get the opportunity to complete the journey by the sea from different points. Then the route crossed the high mountains and went through northern Pakistan, omitting the Hindu Kush Mountains. Further, it ran to Afghanistan and rejoined the northern route near Turkmenistan (Merv at ancient times). From the above mentioned point, the route then pursued a straight line through Mesopotamia, northern Iran and the northern tilt of the Syrian Desert to the Levant. In fact, that was the territory where trading ships of the Mediterranean Sea plied habitual routes to Italy. F inally, one more branch of the route ran from Herat to Charax Spasinu through Susa (Mezzavilla 72). It travelled further to other eastern ports of the Mediterranean Sea from where vessels carried goods to Rome. The Southwestern Route is considered to be one of the most important from the international perspective. The route was an important point, which connected ancient China and India beginning in the third century BC. The Southwestern Route was important from the economic and trade perspective. By that time, the Arabs used primarily the sea way of traveling to the south regions. The opening of the Southwestern Route provided an opportunity to use also the overland route. Hence, the new discovery provided the maritime-overland route, which simplified the economic exchange with the Southwestern regions. The opening of a new route had caused positive changes. The historians determine such term as Southernization (Li 38). Arabs were very interested in the South Route and thus, they used the Silk Route’s southwestern direction to establish connection between South Asia and the Mediterranean region. Silk Road in Different Dynasties Silk Road was opened during the ruling of Western Han Dynasty between 139-129 BC (Mezzavilla 76). Zhang Qian provided two expeditions to the Western region till he could finally find the most appropriate route for the future trade. In addition, the last war campaign against Huns in that region has made it a save place for a commerce route. Han Dynasty has established its protectorate of the Western Regions to make the path more attractive for traders. Western Han Dynasty was changed by Eastern Han Dynasty, which lasted almost 200 years (25-220 AD) (Mezzavilla 74). During the ruling of Eastern Han Dynasty, the Silk Route did not experience any significant changes. Ban Chao and Ban Yong made several expeditions against the rebellions in the Western Regions. The conflict in the West meant the troubles in the route and loss for the country’s economy. Thus, it was necessary to establish peace in that region and make the Silk Route an important trade network for all traders. During the ruling of the Tang Dynasty, the Silk Road has experienced the dramatic changes. Many historians believe that this dynasty has provided the biggest contribution to the development of the Silk Route. The Tang Dynasty existed almost 300 years (618-907 AD); during that period of time the Silk Route has achieved its highest prospering (Mezzavilla 78). However, the golden age of the Silk Route during the ruling of the Tang Dynasty lasted till the Anshi Rebellion (755–762) (Mezzavilla 77). The uprising of the trade network during that period of time can be explained taking into consideration the following reasons: First, the Tang Dynasty was one of the most powerful during the entire history of China. During the ruling of this dynasty, China experienced many positive changes in political, social and economic life. Changan, the largest Chinese city has become the first international metropolis of that time. Hence, such commercial center attracted many foreign traders and merchants from all over the world, who made the Silk Route more luxurious and rich. Second, the emperors of the Tang Dynasty paid especial attention to commerce and the management of the western regions. Probably, it played the crucial role in the development of stable and reliable trade network. China has often faced difficulties with the west regions. Rebellions caused great difficulties there and there was no dynasty which did not have problems with conflicts in the north. However, the strict control of that region has provided the durable prospering of the Silk Route, making it safe for caravans. As it was mentioned above, the prospering of the Silk Route reached its top before the rebellion in the west, which has endangered the safe transit for merchants and traders on the route. Third, the relations with neighbors were stable and relatively friendly. Byzantine Empire, Arabian empire and Persia were interested in the establishing of good economic relations. The well-being of the Silk Route was very important for the empires, as well as for China. Due to the Silk Route, they receive a great variety of rare goods and could sell the products, which were in plenty. In this way, all participants of the Silk Route were interested in the continuous prospective of the trade network because it provided many benefits for all parties. Fourth, the general length of the Silk Road has been enlarged during the Tang Dynasty. In 630, the Chinese military forces defeated the Eastern Turks; it gave an opportunity to enlarge the route in east direction. In addition, the victory over the Eastern Turks played a crucial role in the establishing of friendly relations with the Western Turks. In 646, the Tang dynasty captured control over the Mongolian Plateau (Mezzavilla 82). Hence, one received a new route from Altai through Mongolian Plateau, which enlarged the general length of the Silk Route. All the above-mentioned factors gave the significant growth to the Silk Route’s development and increased the well-being of those empires and states, which were united by the trade network. After the ruling of the Tang Dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty has replaced it and ruled the next hundred years. Under the control of the Mongolian Empire and the establishing of the Yung Dynasty, the Silk Route has become prosperous again. However, it experienced certain changes, both positive and negative. For instance, the Mongolian empire established a new capital of his empire in the present Beijing, making it one of the most prosperous cities in the empire. The sizes of the empire stretched from Siberia in the North to the South Chinese Sea in the South. The territory of a new Mongol Empire was the largest one during the entire history of China. The Mongolian Empire did everything to make the Silk Road more profitable than ever. Thus, they welcomed the foreign travelers, especially from the West, giving them different privileges. For instance, one could receive a special passport, which received the name the â€Å"Golden Tablet† (Hitch 656). The owner of such passport could receive food and horses on the territory of the Mongolian Empire. In addition, the Mongolian khan appointed some western travellers on the ruling position in his empire. For instance, a famous explorer Marco Polo received a position in the Mongolian court. The Mongolian Empire has made the Silk Route saver and more convenient than ever; even the lone caravans could use the route, knowing that they are in safety. Regarding Sino-Roman relations, one can state that they were indirect during the whole existence of two empires. With time, the ancient Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire started cooperating closer throughout the expansion of the Roman Empire into the Ancient Near East. At the same time, Chinese military invasions expanded into Central Asia. Such influential intermediary empires as the Kushans and Parthians permanently kept the two contiguous powers of Europe separately (Hitch 654). As a result, mutual knowledge remained low and awareness unclear. To sum up, it can be said that during the long history of the Silk Route existing, beginning with its creation, the commerce network always changed in order to bring more advantages for those states and empires, which used it. Despite the significant efforts of different Chinese Dynasties to make the Silk Route more prosperous, the conflicts in the North were primarily the main reason why it could not reach the highest level of its development during the ruling of all dynasties. East-West Contribution It can be stated that the trade on the Silk Route was a very important and essential aspect in the development of such great civilizations as China, Persia, the Indian subcontinent, Arabia and Europe. The route opened long distance, economic and political interactions between the above-mentioned civilizations. However, it can be claimed that the Silk Road played a great role in the history of the countries that were engaged in its activity. The main item for trading and even for creating the Silk Route was Chinese silk (Hitch 655). However, one should understand that, although, the route was opened for trading, it was also used for some other reasons and activities. Therefore, with the existence of the Silk Route, other goods were also traded from one country to another. Moreover, the road became the way of transferring syncretic philosophies, religions and various technologies. Unfortunately, it also became the route for various diseases that now travelled from one country to another. Consequently, one can state that besides economic trade the Silk Route was the means of conducting also cultural trade with many of its aspects among the civilizations that were engaged in the Silk Road activity. The division of the world into the Eastern and Western cultures led to numerous wars and conflicts between the civilizations. Nevertheless, the Silk Rout demonstrated that even the constantly struggling cultures could come to a compromise in order to achieve the mutual benefits. The role of the Silk Route in the world history is not limited by the commerce benefits. The durable trade exchange between Eastern and Western civilizations also had the cultural, political and social meaning. Western culture has learnt much from the eastern civilization and received cultural impulses for its development. For instance, Arabs helped Europe shape its ideology; the Enlightenment and the scientific development, as well as the political progress was impossible without such contribution. East has always been more oriented on spiritual, social and political development, while the West was more interested in the military progress. The western social model of well-being could not be achieved without Chinese perfection of social relations, labor force division and specialization in different spheres. The West world has enlarged its technological base due to the Chinese progress. China was one of the most progressive countries in the Middle Age. For instance, in 1078, China produced 125, 000 tons of steel, which was in 3-4 times more than was produced by Britain (Hitch 658). China was also a leader in a textile manufacturing; such experienced was used by Great Britain to make a textile Revolution in the 18th century. In addition, the first paper and book printing was invented in China and lately adopted by other countries. In fact, the rise of the western capitalism was much predetermined by China’s technological development. The western world adopted many useful technologies and discoveries in the sphere of economy, marketing, trading and even military progress, such as gunpowder, which lately was widely used by European nations in numerous wars. Besides the technological borrowing, one should also mention about the cultural exchange, especially the influence of the Silk Route on the art. For instance the appearing of Greco-Buddhist art is the result of the cultural interaction. The similar impact one could find in In Central Asian, Iranian and Indian cultures. Silk was also presented in the art as one of the central ideas because it also had a religious significance for both civilizations. During Kushan period Buddha was illustrated as a human. The scholars believe that it the reference to the Greek and Indian elements of art. The spreading of different religious, such as Buddhist, Christianity, Islam and Judaism across Eurasia was much influenced by the Silk trade. During the centuries, the tight commercial exchange has influenced other aspects of life, especially religion. Religion has played a very important role in the Middle Ages. Christianity, which was primarily the European religion, found the followers in China, while Buddhism has enlarged its influence in Europe (Hitch 657). The merchants could see many Buddhist monasteries across the Silk Road. As a result, it led to the appearing of such phenomenon as syncretism, when the representatives of one culture accept the principles of another one, which earlier were unacceptable for them. A good example of syncretism during the history of the Silk Route is the relations between Chinese and Xiongnu nomads (Hitch 657). The two cultures have adopted the lifestyle, techniques, dress style and other features of each other. Chinese adopted military innovations and some techniques. The historians say that sometimes Chinese soldiers left the military service and went in the steppes where they converted to the Xiongnu life style. Such necessity was predetermined by the fear of punishment or even the threat of death. In fact, there are some records kept that give some particular information about the relationships between China and Rome. In 97 BC, Ban Chao, the general of China, made an attempt to send an emissary to Rome. However, his attempt was unsuccessful. Indeed, the fact is known because several ancient Chinese historians managed to record several assumed Roman envoys. Regarding the indirect trade of goods between two countries, which is also known as Silk Road, it is known that the trade was conducted by the sea in order to sell Roman high qualitative clothes and glassware and Chinese silk. As one can see, the exchange between cultures was not limited only by goods. The western culture, as well as the eastern one has adopted much from each other. In fact, such cultural exchange was not artificial, but a natural phenomenon due to the tight contacts and relations, which existed at that time between the states united by the Silk Route. Conclusion The Silk Road is the important page in the history of West-East relations. Due to the trade network, which existed almost fifteen centuries, the different cultures have adopted many features from each other. The Silk Road is often introduced as an important commerce network, which helped sell the goods which were in plenty on the territory of one state and buy those products that were in demand. However, the trade network had also the cultural exchange meaning. Those states and empires which were united by the Silk Road experienced the cultural, informational, social, political and technological exchange. The well-being of the Silk Road was connected with the ruling dynasty in China. Despite the fact that all dynasties made many efforts to make the trade network more prosperous, there was only one dynasty which could lead the Silk Road to a new level. The Tang Dynasty could achieve success due to certain measures that it took. One of the biggest advantages of that period is the control of the western provinces, which caused great damages of the route. The Mongolian Empire also cared much about the Silk Road. Genghis Khan provided numerous benefits for travellers and merchants in order to make the Silk Road more attractive and safer. He even appointed the foreigners on the high positions in his empire and was always glad to meet them in his Empire. The Silk Road existed to the fifteenth century, when the Ottoman Empire closed the path in order to forbid the trades with the western states. Before such decision, the silk trade was considered to be one of the largest and most prosperous trade networks in the world. In fact, it united the western and the eastern parts of the world, making them finding compromises and avoiding conflicts, which could destroy the beneficial economic exchange. From the historical point of view, the Silk Road is the largest cultural exchange network that existed for almost fifteen hundred years.